Thrombolytic treatment during cardiopulmonary resuscitation is thought to reverse the cerebral no-reflow phenomenon which is widely considered to limit neurological recovery after prolonged cardio-circulatory arrest. However, the recent multicenter randomized double-blind TROICA (Thrombolysis in Cardiac Arrest) trial revealed that patients with witnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest did not experience an improvement of neurological outcome when treated with the throm-bolytic agent tenecteplase [1]. This raises the question of the importance of coagulation disturbances in the pathophysiol-ogy of no-reflow and its reversal by thrombolytic interventions. This article provides an overview of the experimental literature on this subject.

Objective: to reveal lung morphological changes in preterm neonatal infants with hyaline membrane disease (HMD) in the use of exogenous surfactants and artificial ventilation. Materials and methods. Case histories and autopsy protocols were analyzed in 90 preterm neonates who had died from severe respiratory failure. All the neonates were divided into 4 groups: 1) 20 (22.2%) infants who had received the exogenous surfactant Curosurf in the combined therapy of HMD; 2) 19 (21.1%) babies with HMD who had taken Surfactant BL; 3) 25 (27.8%) surfactant-untreated infants who had died from HMD; 4) 26 (28.9%) very preterm neonates with extremely low birth weight who had died within the first hour of life. The lungs were histologically and morphometrically examined. Results. The study demonstrated the specific course of HMD when exogenous surfactants and artificial ventilation were used. The contributors to the development of the disease are intranatal amniotic fluid aspiration and intranatal fetal hypoxia. Conclusion. Artificial ventilation and the use of exogenous surfactants do not block the generation of hyaline membranes. The latter differ in formation time, form, and location. The differences in a cell response to hyaline membranes were found in the neonatal infants receiving exogenous surfactants. The characteristic morphological signs of the disease for all the neonates enrolled in the study are alveolar and bronchial epithelial damages and microcirculatory disorders. Key words: preterm neonatal infants, hyaline membrane disease, exogenous surfactants, artificial ventilation, histology, morphometry.

Objective: to study the efficiency of a lung opening maneuver in patients with acute lung injury (ALI) and concomitant pneumothorax, who were on biphasic positive airway pressure ventilation (BIPAP) and synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation. Subject and methods. Seventy-three patients with acute lung injury and concomitant pneumoth-orax resulting from blunt chest trauma were examined. Their condition was an APACHE II of 18—24 scores. After elimination of pneumothorax, an open lung maneuver was made using different modes of lung support 3—5 times daily. Results. The study has shown that BIPAP used in patients with ALI and concomitant pneumothorax reduces the time of pleural cavity drainage, which allows the lung opening maneuver to be applied earlier. The employment of the latter in patients with ALI and pneumothorax permits a prompter recovery of lung function during different types of respiratory support, which is attended by reductions in the number of complications, artificial ventilation, and mortality. When the lung opening maneuver is combined with BIPAP, its efficiency considerably increases. Key words: acute lung injury, pneumothorax, BIPAP, lung opening maneuver.

Objective: to show that patients’ accelerated activation in the use of combined anesthesia with sevoflurane and fentanyl reduces the incidence of pulmonary complications in young age children after surgery under extracorporeal circulation. Subjects and methods. A randomized controlled study covering 127 patients aged 10 months to 3 years was performed. The study included the patients who had undergone surgery for congenital heart diseases. The patients were found to have atrial and ventricular septal defects and arteriovenous communication. The patients were divided into groups in the operating suite just before anesthesia. After standard premedication-preinduction, a child was taken to the operating room. Group 1 patients were given intubation anesthesia with a combination of the inhalation anesthetic halothane and intravenously infused fentanyl. In Group 2 (a study group), anesthesia was made via continuous fentanyl infusion and sevoflurane inhalation. The authors studied the duration of artificial ventilation, postanesthesia sleep, and antibacterial therapy, the frequency of antibiotic switching, as well as sudden sputum mobilization episodes, the duration and intensity of inotropic support, the rapidity of gastrointestinal passage recovery, and the length of intensive care unit stay. Results. Analysis of the findings showed that in Group 2 (a study group), the time of emergence from anesthesia was significantly shorter than that in Group 1 (a control group). The time of postoperative mechanical ventilation was shorter than that in the group of patients receiving the inhalation anesthetic sevoflurane. Anesthesia with the latter reduced the intraoperative dose of fentanyl when clinically adequate anesthesia was applied. There were no differences in the protocol of inotropic agents immediately after surgery, but the patients receiving sevoflurane as an inhalation component needed no inotropic agents 3 hours after surgery while in the controls the infusion of inotropic agents lasted as long as 6 hours postoperatively. After extubation, the number of sputum mobilization cases requiring additional medical measures substantially reduced in children given the inhalation anesthetic sevoflurane. There was a more need for antibiotic substitution due to the presumed clinical inefficiency of the conventional antibiotic prophylaxis, adopted by the protocol in the cardiology center, in the control group. Additional efforts for tracheobronchial tree sanitation broke a schedule of the children’s feeding and rehabilitation in the intensive care unit. In the study group, intestinal performance normalized more promptly. Conclusion. Early spontaneous breathing and extubation make it possible to activate and rehabilitate a child as soon as possible, to reduce a risk for respiratory complications and treatment costs in the postoperative period, which provides an economic gain.

Objective: to study the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in victims with isolated severe brain injury (SBI). Subject and methods. 171 studies were performed in 16 victims with SBI. Their general condition was rated as very critical. The patients were divided into three groups: 1) non-ARDS; 2) Stage 1 ARDS; and 3) Stage 2 ARDS. The indicators of Stages 1 and 2 were assessed in accordance with the classification proposed by V. V. Moroz and A. M. Golubev. Intracranial pressure (ICP), extravascular lung water index, pulmonary vascular permeability, central hemodynamics, oxygenation index, lung anastomosis, the X-ray pattern of the lung and brain (computed tomography), and its function were monitored. Results. The hemispheric cortical level of injury of the brain with function compensation of its stem was predominantly determined in the controls; subcompensation and decompensation were ascertained in the ARDS groups. According to the proposed classification, these patients developed Stages 1 and 2 ARDS. When ARDS developed, there were rises in the level of extravascular lung fluid and pulmonary vascular permeability, a reduction in the oxygenation index (it was 6—12 hours later as compared with them), increases in a lung shunt and ICP; X-ray study revealed bilateral infiltrates in the absence of heart failure in Stage 2 ARDS. The correlation was positive between ICP and extravascular lung water index, and lung vascular permeability index (r>0.4;p<0.05). Conclusion. The studies have indicated that the classification proposed by V. V. Moroz and A. M. Golubev enables an early diagnosis of ARDS. One of its causes is severe brainstem injury that results in increased extravascular fluid in the lung due to its enhanced vascular permeability. The ICP value is a determinant in the diagnosis of secondary brain injuries. Key words: acute respiratory distress syndrome, extravascu-lar lung fluid, pulmonary vascular permeability, brain injury, intracranial pressure.

Objective: to optimize radiodiagnosis of neonatal lung diseases. Subjects and methods. The results of examinations were analyzed in 7 patients treated at a Kaliningrad regional children’s hospital. Along with physical examination and routine chest X-ray study, lung spiral computed tomography (CT) was made in all the babies on a Somatom Emotion spiral tomographic scanner (Siemens). The dose of irradiation was 4.1 mZV. The study was performed in the craniocaudal direction. The standard lung window mode was as follows: scanning time, 14.75 sec; scanning width, 3 mm; section width, 5 mm; 110 kV; 45 mA/sec. Results. CT established the pattern of a pathological process in the lung. It clarified the nature of the disease in all the cases. Conclusion. CT can provide an accurate topical diagnosis of a pathological process in the lung. This particularly applies to neonatal infants exposed to artificial ventilation. CT reveals the pattern and degree of evolved pulmonary complications and it is of high informative value. Key words: computed tomography, neonatal infants, lung.

Histiocytosis from Langerhans cells with isolated lung injury is described in a 3-year-old child. The data available in the literature on the incidence and mechanisms of pathogenesis and the disease are given. Key words: histiocytosis from Langerhans cells.

The material of this publication has been prepared, by reviewing the data available in the Russian and foreign literatures on acute transfusion-associated lung injury. The paper considers the history of its study and the state-of-the-art. The epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, and pathomorphology of this complication are discussed. Particular emphasis is laid on the diagnosis of acute transfusion-associated lung injury, on the current criteria for verification of its diagnosis, and on the principles of a differentially diagnostic search. The clinical picture and treatment of this pathology are considered. The conclusion of the review gives the recommendations made by Russian and foreign experts to prevent acute transfusion-associated lung injury. Key words: acute transfusion-associated lung injury.

Objective: to justify a comprehensive approach to preventing and correcting pulmonary oxygenizing dysfunction requiring prolonged artificial ventilation in patients operated on under extracorporeal circulation for coronary heart disease. Subjects and methods. One hundred and twenty-three patients aged 55±0.6 years were examined. The study excluded patients with a complicated course of operations (perioperative myocardial infarction, acute cardiovascular insufficiency, hemorrhage, and long extracorporeal circulation). Stimulating spirometry was initiated 2 days before surgery. An alveolar opening maneuver was performed using a continuous dynamic thoracopulmonary compliance monitoring. The parameters of lung oxygenizing function and biomechanics were analyzed. Results. In 78% of the patients, preoperative inspiratory lung capacity was 5—30% lower than the age-related normal values. After extracorporeal circulation, pulmonary oxygenizing dysfunction was diagnosed in 40.9% of cases; at the same time PaO2/FiO2 was associated with an intrapulmonary shunt fraction (Qs/St) (r=-0.53; p=0.002) and Qs/Qt was related to static thoracopulmonary compliance (Cst) (r=-0.39; p=0.03). Preoperative stimulating spirometry provided a considerable increase in intraoperative PaO2/FiO2 values (p<0.05); improved Cst and decreased Qs/Qt. After extracorporeal circulation, the incidence of pulmonary oxygenizing dysfunction was decreased by more than twice (p<0.05). Patients with relative arterial hypoxemia showed a noticeable relationship to the magnitudes of a reduction in Cst and a rise in Qs/Qt (r=0.72; p=0.008), which served as the basis for applying the alveolar opening maneuver. This type of lung support corrected arterial hypoxemia in 67% of cases. Conclusion. In car-diosurgical patients with coronary heart disease, effective prophylaxis and correction of relative arterial hypoxemia caused by the interrelated impairments of pulmonary biomechanical properties and ventilation/perfusion ratio may be ensured via preoperative stimulating spirometry and an alveolar opening maneuver early after extracorporeal circulation if indicated. The comprehensive approach allows a reduction in the incidence of pulmonary oxygenizing dysfunction that prevents early activation in the operating suite from 40 to 5—7%. Key words: early activation, pulmonary oxygenizing function, myocardial revascularization, surgery under extracorporeal circulation, tracheal extubation in the operating-room.

Objective: to study the time course of changes in extravascular lung water index (ELWI) and intracranial and cerebral perfusion pressures (ICP and CPP) and to determine their possible relationships in acute cerebral circulatory disorders (ACCD). Subject and methods. ELWI, pulmonary vascular permeability index (PVPI), ICP, CPP, and central hemodynamics were studied by transpulmonary thermodilution and current X-ray studies were conducted in 18 patients on days 1, 3, 5, and 7 of ACCD. Results. Examinations revealed a supratentorial dislocation of the brain in 6 persons; its subtento-rial dislocation was found in 1 case; supra- and subtentorial dislocations were seen in 6. In patients, ELWI and PVPI increased from days 1 and 5, respectively. The high baseline ICP increased over time. CPP remained unchanged. Preserved left ventricular contractility, enhanced myocardial one, a significant direct correlation between ELWI and PVPI, as well as their increase confirmed that the noncardiogenic genesis was responsible for increased ELWI. A direct significant correlation was found between ICP and ELWI, ICP and PVPI. Against this background, acute respiratory distress syndrome developed in 14 patients with pneumonia evolving in its presence in 7 patients. Conclusion. In ACCD, ELWI increases in the first 24 hours of the acute period. One of its causes is, along with others, primary and/or secondary damage to the brainstem structures with elevated ICP and progressive brain dislocation. The determination of ICP, unlike CPP, is crucial in the diagnosis and treatment of primary/secondary brain injuries and in prognosis. Key words: acute cerebral circulatory disorder, extravascular lung fluid, pulmonary vascular permeability, intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, acute respiratory distress syndrome.

In this article the authors present a brief review of the development of intravenous anesthesia, from its beginnings to today’s widely accepted use of the TCI technique. They explain the theory of TCI based on the pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. They point out undeniable advantages that this technique offers, compared to classical intravenous anesthesia and even inhalational anesthesia. They offer a short description of basic technological characteristics of a TCI pump. At the end of the article they present their own experiences with this technique, with the aim to bring it closer to a wider qualified public. Key words: intravenous anesthesia, total intravenous anesthesia, TCI.

Objective: to establish a relationship between the influence of extracorporeal circulation (EC) factors — its duration, mean blood pressure, and the magnitude of cerebral dysfunction. Subjects and methods. Thirty patients who had undergone above 120-min EC with surface (34—33°C) hypothermia of the body due to cardiosurgical intervention were examined by neurological and neuropsychological methods as described by A. R. Luriya. Results. Acute global brain ischemia (AGBI), as a consequence of negative EC factors, was shown to have impact on cerebral, specifically, higher psychic functions. There was a heterogeneous susceptibility of cerebral structures to AGBI, particularly the structures of the left hemisphere and cerebellum. Conclusion. The duration of perfusion is a determinant in the development of AGBI when extracorporeal circulation is applied. Arterial hypotensive episodes and critically low mean blood pressure are an important concomitant. Key words: extracorporeal (artificial) circulation, higher psychic functions, neurology, neuropsychology, neurodynamics, acute global brain ischemia.

The volumes of the dead space (anatomic and alveolar) play an important role in the physiology of external respiration and information on these volumes makes the diagnosis of different respiratory disorders easier. The volume of the anatomic dead space (the last inspiratory portions) is uninvolved in the mixing with the gas of functional residual capacity (FRC) and leaves the airways unchanged in the gas composition on expiration. Mixing of the other portion of the tidal volume with FRC gas should be regarded as preparation for an alveolar gas exchange process. The increased partial value of the anatomic dead space in the tidal volume with its decrease (tachypnea) and, accordingly, reduced alveolar ventilation volume may result in ventilation respiratory failure. The time course of changes in the volume of the alveolar dead space is easily detectable from the decrease in expiratory CO2 concentrations as compared with PaCO2. The increased alveolar dead space volume suggests impaired local blood flow (thromboembolism, acute respiratory distress syndrome) in the lesser circulation and gives grounds to diagnose shunting and venous mixing. Procedures for measuring the dead space volumes are simple and may be introduced into clinical practice. Key words: anatomic dead space, alveolar dead space, functional residual capacity, respiratory failure.